Conceptual Framework for PR Research
1. Environmental Scanning
Referred to as the gathering of intelligence about publics and environmental forces ..... these activities are conceptually distinct from performance control feedback, program adjustment feedback, and organizational adaption feedback... these feedback loops are conceptual representations in an open-systems model of the three types of program evaluation that practitioners use to measure the preparation, implementation, and impact of public relations programs.
Scanning Research (SR) is different ... (it is) a part of problem-defining stage of PR Planning that moves through the three phases of problem detection, exploration and description (Dozier, 1986) .... (it is) a form of systems input ... inherently open-ended and exploratory in nature ..... The strategic function of scanning is early detection of emerging problems as well as quantification of existing or known problems in the environment ...
Companies that scan the entire environment and aggregate the results to make informed assessments will have an advantage to those that compartmentalize their scanning - one person look at blogs, another at media, yet another at activist groups and so on (blog.holtz.com)
SR is suitable for qualitative research techniques, including focus-group studies, and questionnaires of specific publics or a broad cross section of many publics.
2. Evaluation Research
ER is designed to determine the impact of PR programs using problem description from ES as baseline data (Dozier, 1984a, 1984b). ER can be divided into three levels (Cutlip, Center, and Broom, 1985):
i. Preparation Evaluation - subdivided into three components -
(a) adequacy of background information,
(b) appropriateness of message content and organization, and
(c) quality of message presentattions (style, format, and presentation)
This level of evaluation can be conducted internally or externally by research firms; most common services are message-testing and focus-group studies... Message-testing may be in the form of qualitative formative evaluation. Focus-groups provide a useful mechanism for testing messages at the concept stage. More structured experimental designs, involving large numbers of subjects from the target public and quantified measures of reactions to alternative message and media strategies, provide powerful mechanisms for follow-up on concepts tested through qualitative techniques.
Readibility tests and formulas are used to determine the difficulty of reading written material (Broom & Dozier, 1990). Characteristics such as word length and sentence length are used to determine the score of a writing sample which can be compared against established standards of readibility.
ii. Implementation Evaluation (IE)
IE includes measures of messages sent (distribution), messages placed (coverage), messages received (circulation, reach), and a number of messages attended to by target publics (Cutlip et. al. 1985). ... internal and external placement tracking system (clip file studies, reach analyses, etc.)
iii. Impact Evaluation
Impact of PR programs involve the maintenance of change - among clearly defined target publics and management of the practitioner's organization - of awareness or knowledge levels, attitudes and opinions, and behavior and behavioral predispositions. ... the effectiveness of PR programs is described using the domino metaphor ... a message is assumed to bring about a change in knowledge, which then causes a change in attitude or opinion, which in turn causes a change in behavior or behavioral change.
Survey Research -
Probabilistic Sampling
A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random selection. In order to have a random selection method, you must set up some process or procedure that assures that the different units in your population have equal probabilities of being chosen.
Some Definitions
N = the number of cases in the sampling frame
n = the number of cases in the sample
NCn = the number of combinations (subsets) of n from N
f = n/N = the sampling fraction
Simple Random Sampling
The simplest form of random sampling is called simple random sampling.
Objective: To select n units out of N such that each NCn has an equal chance of being selected.
Procedure: Use a table of random numbers, a computer random number generator, or a mechanical device to select the sample.
How do we select a simple random sample? Let's assume that we are doing some research with a small service agency that wishes to assess client's views of quality of service over the past year. First, we have to get the sampling frame organized. To accomplish this, we'll go through agency records to identify every client over the past 12 months. If we're lucky, the agency has good accurate computerized records and can quickly produce such a list. Then, we have to actually draw the sample. Decide on the number of clients you would like to have in the final sample. For the sake of the example, let's say you want to select 100 clients to survey and that there were 1000 clients over the past 12 months. Then, the sampling fraction is f = n/N = 100/1000 = .10 or 10%.
Here's a simple procedure that's especially useful if you have the names of the clients already on the computer. Many computer programs can generate a series of random numbers. Let's assume you can copy and paste the list of client names into a column in an EXCEL spreadsheet. Then, in the column right next to it paste the function =RAND() which is EXCEL's way of putting a random number between 0 and 1 in the cells. Then, sort both columns -- the list of names and the random number -- by the random numbers. This rearranges the list in random order from the lowest to the highest random number. Then, all you have to do is take the first hundred names in this sorted list. pretty simple. You could probably accomplish the whole thing in under a minute.
Simple random sampling is simple to accomplish and is easy to explain to others. Because simple random sampling is a fair way to select a sample, it is reasonable to generalize the results from the sample back to the population. Simple random sampling is not the most statistically efficient method of sampling and you may, just because of the luck of the draw, not get good representation of subgroups in a population. To deal with these issues, we have to turn to other sampling methods.
Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling, also sometimes called proportional or quota random sampling, involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and then taking a simple random sample in each subgroup. In more formal terms:
Objective: Divide the population into non-overlapping groups (i.e., strata) N1, N2, N3, ... Ni, such that N1 + N2 + N3 + ... + Ni = N. Then do a simple random sample of f = n/N in each strata.
First, SRS assures that you will be able to represent not only the overall population, but also key subgroups of the population, especially small minority groups. If you want to be able to talk about subgroups, this may be the only way to effectively assure you'll be able to. If the subgroup is extremely small, you can use different sampling fractions (f) within the different strata to randomly over-sample the small group (although you'll then have to weight the within-group estimates using the sampling fraction whenever you want overall population estimates). When we use the same sampling fraction within strata we are conducting proportionate stratified random sampling. When we use different sampling fractions in the strata, we call this disproportionate stratified random sampling.
Second, SRS will generally have more statistical precision than simple random sampling. This will only be true if the strata or groups are homogeneous. If they are, we expect that the variability within-groups is lower than the variability for the population as a whole. Stratified sampling capitalizes on that fact.
Because the groups are more homogeneous within-group than across the population as a whole, we can expect greater statistical precision (less variance). And, because we stratified, we know we will have enough cases from each group to make meaningful subgroup inferences.
Systematic Random Sampling
Here are the steps you need to follow in order to achieve a systematic random sample:
number the units in the population from 1 to N
decide on the n (sample size) that you want or need
k = N/n = the interval size
randomly select an integer between 1 to k
then take every kth unit
Cluster (Area) Random Sampling
The problem with random sampling methods when we have to sample a population that's disbursed across a wide geographic region is that you will have to cover a lot of ground geographically in order to get to each of the units you sampled.
In cluster sampling, we follow these steps:
divide population into clusters (usually along geographic boundaries)
randomly sample clusters
measure all units within sampled clusters
Multi-Stage Sampling
The four methods we've covered so far -- simple, stratified, systematic and cluster -- are the simplest random sampling strategies. In most real applied social research, we would use sampling methods that are considerably more complex than these simple variations. The most important principle here is that we can combine the simple methods described earlier in a variety of useful ways that help us address our sampling needs in the most efficient and effective manner possible. When we combine sampling methods, we call this multi-stage sampling.
Values and Lifestyles (VALS)
www.sric-bi.com
VALS™ is a marketing and consulting tool that helps businesses worldwide develop and execute more effective strategies. The system identifies current and future opportunities by segmenting the consumer marketplace on the basis of the personality traits that drive consumer behavior. VALS applies in all phases of the marketing process, from new-product development and entry-stage targeting to communications strategy and advertising.The basic tenet of VALS is that people express their personalities through their behaviors. VALS specifically defines consumer segments on the basis of those personality traits that affect behavior in the marketplace. Rather than looking at what people do and segregating people with like activities, VALS uses psychology to segment people according to their distinct personality traits. The personality traits are the motivation—the cause. Buying behavior becomes the effect—the observable, external behavior prompted by an internal driver.
PRIZM
http://www.claritas.com
Claritas PRIZM NE (The New Evolution) combines the demographic and consumer behavior segmentation data needed to easily identify, understand and target customers and prospects. PRIZM NE defines every household in terms of 66 demographically and behaviorally distinct types, or "segments," to help learn about their likes, dislikes, lifestyles and purchase behavior. With the capabilities of consumer behavior segmentation information, businesses can better understand customers and prospects and to target them more efficiently with tailored messages and products designed just for them.
With PRIZM marketing analysis, household and neighborhood-level segment assignments are linked to provide a seamless transition from market planning and media strategy, to customer acquisition, cross-selling and retention.
Claritas pioneered customer segmentation systems for commercial use over 30 years ago – to provide marketers with an insider's view of their customers and prospects. Claritas PRIZM, the first segmentation system of its kind, provides a standard way of sorting the population into similar groups by demographics, lifestyle preferences and behaviors to provide actionable target marketing information.
Sunday, May 28, 2006
Monday, May 22, 2006
What is an Effective Organization?
Why are some organizations more effective than others in communicating their messages?
How can PR practitioners make an organization more effective with its publics?
Observe organizations around you and explain why some of them are perceived as successful while others as failures?
Four key approaches on effectiveness:
1. Systems perspective
> Also known as the natural systems model and the systems resource approach
> An organization is seen as a system comprised of interrelated sub-systems
> The performance of each subsystem will affect the entire system
> The PR department, as a managerial subsytem, will affect the success or failure of the organization
> Mgmt relies on PR professionals to maintain good relations with the organization's external publics
> Coomunication skills also contribute to coordination of internal operations
> Evaluation is based on systems characteristics, such as growth, equilibrium or decline
> Effectiveness is defined as the organization's awareness and successful interactions with its "environmental publics such as customers, suppliers, government agencies, and communities.... (which) have the power to disrupt or at least constrain the operation of the organization" (Yutchman and Seashore, 1967)
2. Competing-values perspective
> An integrative framework that "encompasses both means and ends ... of acquiring resources from the environment"
> An organization's survival depends on resource acquistion, resource transformation into products and release of products and services into the environment
> Useful for organizations in transition to guide them to their strategic directions
> Effectiveness is defined as "achievement vis-a-vis priorities" (Hage, 1980) which ackowledges multiple criteria for effectiveness and conflicting interests in efforts at assessing success or failure
> Different organizations use different standards to demonstrate their effectiveness, either through cohesion and morale (HR and training), adaptability and readiness (growth, resource acquisition and external support), planning and goal-setting (productivity and effciency) or information management and communication (stability and control)
3. Strategic-constituencies perspective:
> More contemporary measure of organizational effectiveness
> Emphasizes the external environment
> Focuses on interdependencies between organizations and its external environments
> Concentrates on the segments within the environment that most threaten the organization
> The standard becomes how well the organization satisfies the demands of its relevant external publics, i.e. stakeholders or organized groups that are deemed to be most critical to the organization, in terms of their potential for support or for adversarial action
> Associated with resource-dependent and population ecology approaches
4. Goal-attainment perspectives
> Also known as rational-systems model
> This approach emphasizes ends
> An effective organization is one that realizes its goal (Robbins, 1990)
> Most reasonable approach when goals are clear, time bound and measurable
> Attractive because of its emphasis on purposeful action
> The notion of self-interest is paramount within the framework of power and control in organization
> Thus, effectiveness is defined as "the degree to which an organization attains its short- (ends) and long-term (means) goals, the selection of which reflects strategic constituencies, the self-interest of the evaluator, and the life stage of the organization" (Robbins, 1990, 77)
> Four ways to be more effective:
(a) diversify to "loosen dependencies"
(b) diffuse power of CEO
(c) develop mechanisms for "scanning the environment" to identify potential external groups, to encourage information in-flow, and assist senior managers act on that information
(d) develop mechanisms for "managing conflicting demands and constraints", for example consumer affairs departments, industrial relations departments and affirmative action departments.
(Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978)
Key concepts:
1. Environmental Publics
Consumers, activists, regulatory agencies, media organizations
2. Stakeholders
Publics or other organizations
3. Dominant Coalition
A group in an organization that has the power to make and enforce decisions about the strategic direction of the company - its tasks, its objectives, its functions and structures. Its power legitimised and institutionalized through legal documents, characters of incorporation, and so forth (Holmes, 1965; Weber, 1947)
4. Boundary Spanners
Individuals within the organization who frequently interact with the organization's environmnet and who gather, select and relay information from the environment to decision makers in the dominant coalition. Communication managers and PR practitioners are mong an organization's designated boundary spanners (Aldrich and Herker, 1977). Boundary-spanning activities can be formalized through management information systems (MIS)
The nature of relationships between organizations and stakeholders emerges as a central concept in a theory of public relations and organizational effectiveness:
> Organizations must deal with other organizations on a daily basis, either competing or cooperating for economic opportunities, legislation, public policies, or media coverage
> Thus, there is a connection between the quality of communication (PR excellence) and the nature of relationships between organizations and their stakeholders
The yardstick used for measuring the quality of an organization's relationships with strategic publics:
(a) dynamic versus static,
(b) open versus closed,
(c) the degree of satisfaction with the relationship,
(d) distribution of power in the relationship,
(e) the mutuality of understanding, agreement, and consensus,
(f) plus trust and credibility
Can PR Excellence be measured in monetary terms?
Following to the norm of reciprocity, successful organizations strive to be good corporate citizens by embracing corporate social responsibility (CSR). Does it pay to "give back" to the society in the long-term?
According to Preston, responsible (corporate) behavior has an indirect effect on performance (1981, 9)
"Socially relevant behaviors" and "externally-oriented activity" are crucial in maintaining the socio-political status-quo and preserving the environment since "penalties for deviance ... (which include bad publicity, regulatory and criminal fines, private suits, and penetration of the firm by activist groups and government ... can be extremely costly" (Grunig, 1992, 86)
Socially responsible corporations do everything they can to secure market advantage (Tuleja, 1985, 187) through two key terms, "goodwill" and "long-term" (1985, 200)
Decisions and Decision-making
Definitions:
Decision - "a specific commitment to action" - Mintzberg, Raisinghani, and Theoret (1976)
Decision making - "the moment of choice among the alternative immediate acts" - Berkeley and Humphreys (1982)
Deciison making is not made in a vacuum, it is made within a social setting and it has social consequences
Decision Problem - requires the need for a decision and a definition which involves problem perception, evaluation of its strategic structure and negotiation for a selection of a resolution.
There are five distinct participant roles that are available to a communication manager:
1. Decision makers - have executive powers to define the use of outputs from the phases of the decision-making process
r. Proposers - have the power to make recommendations
3. Experts - supply input to the modeled problem structure
4. Consultants or Decision Analysts - advise on methods of problem representation
5. Facilitators - facilitates collaboration of experts and the transmission of results within and between rounds of decision making
How can PR practitioners make an organization more effective with its publics?
Observe organizations around you and explain why some of them are perceived as successful while others as failures?
Four key approaches on effectiveness:
1. Systems perspective
> Also known as the natural systems model and the systems resource approach
> An organization is seen as a system comprised of interrelated sub-systems
> The performance of each subsystem will affect the entire system
> The PR department, as a managerial subsytem, will affect the success or failure of the organization
> Mgmt relies on PR professionals to maintain good relations with the organization's external publics
> Coomunication skills also contribute to coordination of internal operations
> Evaluation is based on systems characteristics, such as growth, equilibrium or decline
> Effectiveness is defined as the organization's awareness and successful interactions with its "environmental publics such as customers, suppliers, government agencies, and communities.... (which) have the power to disrupt or at least constrain the operation of the organization" (Yutchman and Seashore, 1967)
2. Competing-values perspective
> An integrative framework that "encompasses both means and ends ... of acquiring resources from the environment"
> An organization's survival depends on resource acquistion, resource transformation into products and release of products and services into the environment
> Useful for organizations in transition to guide them to their strategic directions
> Effectiveness is defined as "achievement vis-a-vis priorities" (Hage, 1980) which ackowledges multiple criteria for effectiveness and conflicting interests in efforts at assessing success or failure
> Different organizations use different standards to demonstrate their effectiveness, either through cohesion and morale (HR and training), adaptability and readiness (growth, resource acquisition and external support), planning and goal-setting (productivity and effciency) or information management and communication (stability and control)
3. Strategic-constituencies perspective:
> More contemporary measure of organizational effectiveness
> Emphasizes the external environment
> Focuses on interdependencies between organizations and its external environments
> Concentrates on the segments within the environment that most threaten the organization
> The standard becomes how well the organization satisfies the demands of its relevant external publics, i.e. stakeholders or organized groups that are deemed to be most critical to the organization, in terms of their potential for support or for adversarial action
> Associated with resource-dependent and population ecology approaches
4. Goal-attainment perspectives
> Also known as rational-systems model
> This approach emphasizes ends
> An effective organization is one that realizes its goal (Robbins, 1990)
> Most reasonable approach when goals are clear, time bound and measurable
> Attractive because of its emphasis on purposeful action
> The notion of self-interest is paramount within the framework of power and control in organization
> Thus, effectiveness is defined as "the degree to which an organization attains its short- (ends) and long-term (means) goals, the selection of which reflects strategic constituencies, the self-interest of the evaluator, and the life stage of the organization" (Robbins, 1990, 77)
> Four ways to be more effective:
(a) diversify to "loosen dependencies"
(b) diffuse power of CEO
(c) develop mechanisms for "scanning the environment" to identify potential external groups, to encourage information in-flow, and assist senior managers act on that information
(d) develop mechanisms for "managing conflicting demands and constraints", for example consumer affairs departments, industrial relations departments and affirmative action departments.
(Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978)
Key concepts:
1. Environmental Publics
Consumers, activists, regulatory agencies, media organizations
2. Stakeholders
Publics or other organizations
3. Dominant Coalition
A group in an organization that has the power to make and enforce decisions about the strategic direction of the company - its tasks, its objectives, its functions and structures. Its power legitimised and institutionalized through legal documents, characters of incorporation, and so forth (Holmes, 1965; Weber, 1947)
4. Boundary Spanners
Individuals within the organization who frequently interact with the organization's environmnet and who gather, select and relay information from the environment to decision makers in the dominant coalition. Communication managers and PR practitioners are mong an organization's designated boundary spanners (Aldrich and Herker, 1977). Boundary-spanning activities can be formalized through management information systems (MIS)
The nature of relationships between organizations and stakeholders emerges as a central concept in a theory of public relations and organizational effectiveness:
> Organizations must deal with other organizations on a daily basis, either competing or cooperating for economic opportunities, legislation, public policies, or media coverage
> Thus, there is a connection between the quality of communication (PR excellence) and the nature of relationships between organizations and their stakeholders
The yardstick used for measuring the quality of an organization's relationships with strategic publics:
(a) dynamic versus static,
(b) open versus closed,
(c) the degree of satisfaction with the relationship,
(d) distribution of power in the relationship,
(e) the mutuality of understanding, agreement, and consensus,
(f) plus trust and credibility
Can PR Excellence be measured in monetary terms?
Following to the norm of reciprocity, successful organizations strive to be good corporate citizens by embracing corporate social responsibility (CSR). Does it pay to "give back" to the society in the long-term?
According to Preston, responsible (corporate) behavior has an indirect effect on performance (1981, 9)
"Socially relevant behaviors" and "externally-oriented activity" are crucial in maintaining the socio-political status-quo and preserving the environment since "penalties for deviance ... (which include bad publicity, regulatory and criminal fines, private suits, and penetration of the firm by activist groups and government ... can be extremely costly" (Grunig, 1992, 86)
Socially responsible corporations do everything they can to secure market advantage (Tuleja, 1985, 187) through two key terms, "goodwill" and "long-term" (1985, 200)
Decisions and Decision-making
Definitions:
Decision - "a specific commitment to action" - Mintzberg, Raisinghani, and Theoret (1976)
Decision making - "the moment of choice among the alternative immediate acts" - Berkeley and Humphreys (1982)
Deciison making is not made in a vacuum, it is made within a social setting and it has social consequences
Decision Problem - requires the need for a decision and a definition which involves problem perception, evaluation of its strategic structure and negotiation for a selection of a resolution.
There are five distinct participant roles that are available to a communication manager:
1. Decision makers - have executive powers to define the use of outputs from the phases of the decision-making process
r. Proposers - have the power to make recommendations
3. Experts - supply input to the modeled problem structure
4. Consultants or Decision Analysts - advise on methods of problem representation
5. Facilitators - facilitates collaboration of experts and the transmission of results within and between rounds of decision making
Friday, May 19, 2006
Global Communication
The term International Communication was formerly used to refer to Global Communication.
Global Communication is about communication interactions that occured between nations at the regional and international levels.
The popular debate in Global Communication gravitates towards the issue of the imbalance in the flow of information between the developed in the West and developing nations of "the rest".
The Common assumptions:
1. That Western-dominated News agencies and networks like CNN, Reuters, BBC, VOA, and NHK controls the free flow of information around the world;
2. They construct and disseminate distorted and negative images about the Third World, for example, the persistence of corruption, volence, disaster, poverty and illiteracy;
3. The 'bias' in news and media representations of the Third World is due to 'western' reporters' lack of understanding of Third World histories and cultures;
4. The Western news reports depend on sensationalism, not social responsibility.
The Possible Solutions:
1. Alternative and independent news agencies to counterbalance the information flow between the West and the East, e.g. the OANA (Organization of Asian News Association) which comprised of 31 member countries
(The Nonaligned News Movement (NAM), a grouping of 116 countries, was formed during the Cold War with the intention of providing developing countries with an alternative to the Western and Eastern power blocs. The online service for the Nonaligned News Network (NNN), which pools the efforts of state-run media in developing countries, was launched in April 2006. The government news agencies cooperating on the project say the service will help correct the "unfair" coverage from Western media. It is currently available in English, with plans to add Arabic, French and Spanish in the future. Malaysia's national news agency, Bernama, hosts the new network and collects the contributions from the national agencies of member countries.
The national news agencies of many NAM members tend to be propaganda organs whose articles hold little interest for other countries. Independent reporting is scarce in many NAM countries, which include some of the world’s worst places for journalists, such as Burma, Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Turkmenistan and Zimbabwe.)
2. An alternative concept of news values based on Asian values to countervail the dominant Western values of timeliness, proximity, personality, unusual event, human interest, and conflict. These values focus on development, social responsibility, national integration, and education.
Four theories of the Press
1. Authoritarian Theory
2. Libertarian Theory
3. Social Responsibility
4. Communist Theory
Study on press freedom in 199 countries:
- 52% of all those countries where the press have least freedom and around 12% where the press freedom is intermediate. Norway, USA, Japan, UK are the examples of the countries where the press is ‘Very Free’.
The Altschull Typology:
1. Market
2. Marxist
3. Advancing
References:
A.S. Bhalla (1998), Globalization, Growth, and Marginalization
- a discussion of seven key features of globalization: growth in trade, growth in foreign direct investment and capital flows, global production and consumption, global competition, trade and investment liberalization policies, loss of national sovereignty, and standardization of values and culture (1) .
Robert W. McChesney (1998) "The Political Economy of Global Communication" Capitalism and the Information Age: The Political Economy of the Global Communication Revolution.
Related Concepts:
Globalization may well be the dominant political, social, and economic issue of our era. Globalization generally refers to the process whereby capitalism is increasingly constituted on a transnational basis, not only in the trade of goods and services but, even more important, in the flow of capital and the trade in currencies and financial investments (2).
Other definitions of globalization can be found at these sites: African Development Forum 1999 and Globalization: Our Changing World
The backlash to globalization has made headlines in the past year as protestors have taken to the streets at both the November 1999 World Trade Organization (WTO) meeting held in Seattle, and at the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank meeting in Washington in April 2000. The anti-globalization movement strives to undercover the disturbing truths about the harsh economic and social realities that globalization imposes on developing countries. Globalization dramatically affects the already economically strained developing countries through foreign policies such as structural adjustment programs (SAP), where developing countries are encouraged to adjust their economic structures to better suit to the needs of the private sector. SAPs require developing countries to reduce government spending, end public subsidies, devalue their currency, adopt export-oriented trade policies, as well as remove trade and exchange controls and raise interest rates to reward foreign investors (3).
For more information about the effects of globalization on developing countries, read the following articles:Wild Weekend of Globalization Protests in U.S. Capitol Corporate Watch - Globalization and Corporate Rule (provides links to other useful sections) True Intent Behind Globalization Will Globalization Facilitate Development? A Survey of the Impacts of IMF Structural Adjustment in Africa
Some of the only many problems faced by lesser developed countries include widespread poverty, high illiteracy rates, intense foreign debt, overpopulation, and reliance on the agricultural sector. Information can play a major role in the alleviation of these problems. Information, primarily agricultural, medical, and technological, can help to create stronger social, economic, and technical infrastructures needed to support the development process (4). As UNESCO states in its Medium-term Plan (1984-1989):
The possession and use of knowledge are essential factors for progress. Information, the communicable form of knowledge,... ...has therefore come to be recognized as one of the main prerequisites for economic and social development. It is an indispensable factor in the rational use of natural resources, scientific and technological advancement, progress in agriculture, industry and services.... ...Consequently, assimilation of scientific and technological information is an essential precondition for progress in developing countries (5) (emphasis added).
The provision of information and the access to information therefore, is a key to the success of any nation. One of the most important roles that libraries and librarians play in society is providing access to information. As Sarah Ann Long, President of the American Library Association (ALA) states, "libraries build community, but today's community is a global one" (6). The vital role of providing access to information is therefore directly affected by globalization. Globalization has resulted in the rapid spread of technology and ideas at a pace the world has never experienced before. Globalization in this Information Age is seen by some as the most progressive global movement since the Industrial Revolution. The Internet has enabled this "Global Village" to be truly "connected" twenty hours a day, seven days a week.
We know that information plays a vital role in the lives of all people across the globe. Access to information therefore becomes the key. Isolation is a fundamental problem when discussing the idea of access. How do people in the developing world access the proverbial "information superhighway", when they do not even have access to adequate roads ? What happens to those countries that are lacking any form of a technological infrastructure ? What happens to those countries where there are not adequate libraries where people can access information ? What happens is that the information gap between developed countries and lesser developed countries widens daily. Some now refer to this dichotomy of the have's and have not's, not as developed and developing countries, but rather as information rich or information poor countries.
Some development agencies are attempting to help these information poor countries "catch-up" by providing access to basic necessities while at the same time trying to provide an environment for the establishment of technological growth. Libraries are also attempting to help out be assisting with various information-based development projects.
The purpose of this site is to provide a selective guide to resources that are available on the Internet and at the University of Alberta Library that discuss these issues relating to globalization, information, and developing countries. Again, I want to stress that this is not an exhaustive bibliography of information on this topic. Rather, this listing of information resources acts only as a starting point for readers that are interested in exploring this topic.
Global Communication is about communication interactions that occured between nations at the regional and international levels.
The popular debate in Global Communication gravitates towards the issue of the imbalance in the flow of information between the developed in the West and developing nations of "the rest".
The Common assumptions:
1. That Western-dominated News agencies and networks like CNN, Reuters, BBC, VOA, and NHK controls the free flow of information around the world;
2. They construct and disseminate distorted and negative images about the Third World, for example, the persistence of corruption, volence, disaster, poverty and illiteracy;
3. The 'bias' in news and media representations of the Third World is due to 'western' reporters' lack of understanding of Third World histories and cultures;
4. The Western news reports depend on sensationalism, not social responsibility.
The Possible Solutions:
1. Alternative and independent news agencies to counterbalance the information flow between the West and the East, e.g. the OANA (Organization of Asian News Association) which comprised of 31 member countries
(The Nonaligned News Movement (NAM), a grouping of 116 countries, was formed during the Cold War with the intention of providing developing countries with an alternative to the Western and Eastern power blocs. The online service for the Nonaligned News Network (NNN), which pools the efforts of state-run media in developing countries, was launched in April 2006. The government news agencies cooperating on the project say the service will help correct the "unfair" coverage from Western media. It is currently available in English, with plans to add Arabic, French and Spanish in the future. Malaysia's national news agency, Bernama, hosts the new network and collects the contributions from the national agencies of member countries.
The national news agencies of many NAM members tend to be propaganda organs whose articles hold little interest for other countries. Independent reporting is scarce in many NAM countries, which include some of the world’s worst places for journalists, such as Burma, Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Turkmenistan and Zimbabwe.)
2. An alternative concept of news values based on Asian values to countervail the dominant Western values of timeliness, proximity, personality, unusual event, human interest, and conflict. These values focus on development, social responsibility, national integration, and education.
Four theories of the Press
1. Authoritarian Theory
2. Libertarian Theory
3. Social Responsibility
4. Communist Theory
Study on press freedom in 199 countries:
- 52% of all those countries where the press have least freedom and around 12% where the press freedom is intermediate. Norway, USA, Japan, UK are the examples of the countries where the press is ‘Very Free’.
The Altschull Typology:
1. Market
2. Marxist
3. Advancing
References:
A.S. Bhalla (1998), Globalization, Growth, and Marginalization
- a discussion of seven key features of globalization: growth in trade, growth in foreign direct investment and capital flows, global production and consumption, global competition, trade and investment liberalization policies, loss of national sovereignty, and standardization of values and culture (1) .
Robert W. McChesney (1998) "The Political Economy of Global Communication" Capitalism and the Information Age: The Political Economy of the Global Communication Revolution.
Related Concepts:
Globalization may well be the dominant political, social, and economic issue of our era. Globalization generally refers to the process whereby capitalism is increasingly constituted on a transnational basis, not only in the trade of goods and services but, even more important, in the flow of capital and the trade in currencies and financial investments (2).
Other definitions of globalization can be found at these sites: African Development Forum 1999 and Globalization: Our Changing World
The backlash to globalization has made headlines in the past year as protestors have taken to the streets at both the November 1999 World Trade Organization (WTO) meeting held in Seattle, and at the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank meeting in Washington in April 2000. The anti-globalization movement strives to undercover the disturbing truths about the harsh economic and social realities that globalization imposes on developing countries. Globalization dramatically affects the already economically strained developing countries through foreign policies such as structural adjustment programs (SAP), where developing countries are encouraged to adjust their economic structures to better suit to the needs of the private sector. SAPs require developing countries to reduce government spending, end public subsidies, devalue their currency, adopt export-oriented trade policies, as well as remove trade and exchange controls and raise interest rates to reward foreign investors (3).
For more information about the effects of globalization on developing countries, read the following articles:Wild Weekend of Globalization Protests in U.S. Capitol Corporate Watch - Globalization and Corporate Rule (provides links to other useful sections) True Intent Behind Globalization Will Globalization Facilitate Development? A Survey of the Impacts of IMF Structural Adjustment in Africa
Some of the only many problems faced by lesser developed countries include widespread poverty, high illiteracy rates, intense foreign debt, overpopulation, and reliance on the agricultural sector. Information can play a major role in the alleviation of these problems. Information, primarily agricultural, medical, and technological, can help to create stronger social, economic, and technical infrastructures needed to support the development process (4). As UNESCO states in its Medium-term Plan (1984-1989):
The possession and use of knowledge are essential factors for progress. Information, the communicable form of knowledge,... ...has therefore come to be recognized as one of the main prerequisites for economic and social development. It is an indispensable factor in the rational use of natural resources, scientific and technological advancement, progress in agriculture, industry and services.... ...Consequently, assimilation of scientific and technological information is an essential precondition for progress in developing countries (5) (emphasis added).
The provision of information and the access to information therefore, is a key to the success of any nation. One of the most important roles that libraries and librarians play in society is providing access to information. As Sarah Ann Long, President of the American Library Association (ALA) states, "libraries build community, but today's community is a global one" (6). The vital role of providing access to information is therefore directly affected by globalization. Globalization has resulted in the rapid spread of technology and ideas at a pace the world has never experienced before. Globalization in this Information Age is seen by some as the most progressive global movement since the Industrial Revolution. The Internet has enabled this "Global Village" to be truly "connected" twenty hours a day, seven days a week.
We know that information plays a vital role in the lives of all people across the globe. Access to information therefore becomes the key. Isolation is a fundamental problem when discussing the idea of access. How do people in the developing world access the proverbial "information superhighway", when they do not even have access to adequate roads ? What happens to those countries that are lacking any form of a technological infrastructure ? What happens to those countries where there are not adequate libraries where people can access information ? What happens is that the information gap between developed countries and lesser developed countries widens daily. Some now refer to this dichotomy of the have's and have not's, not as developed and developing countries, but rather as information rich or information poor countries.
Some development agencies are attempting to help these information poor countries "catch-up" by providing access to basic necessities while at the same time trying to provide an environment for the establishment of technological growth. Libraries are also attempting to help out be assisting with various information-based development projects.
The purpose of this site is to provide a selective guide to resources that are available on the Internet and at the University of Alberta Library that discuss these issues relating to globalization, information, and developing countries. Again, I want to stress that this is not an exhaustive bibliography of information on this topic. Rather, this listing of information resources acts only as a starting point for readers that are interested in exploring this topic.
Monday, May 15, 2006
The Social Role of Public Relations
The following are the worldviews on public relations' social role:
1. The Pragmatic Social Role
Presuppositions:
i. that PR is a useful and "value-added" practice to achieve the client's marketing objectives and commercial interests;
ii. thus, this presupposition will argue against the development of codes of conduct or ethical standards in PR practice;
iii. this view paves the way to practices that brings PR into disrepute or allows client to dictate PR practice;
iv. this worldview perceives society as comprised of "a marketplace of ideas, services and products" and publics as customers to be neutralized in the pursuit of profits;
v. since this social view serves the client's interests, it will not lead to excellent PR practice and make the organization more effective.
2. The Conservative Social Role
Presuppositions:
i. that PR justifies, defends and maintains the status-quo, the privileges of the powers-that-be, heirarchy, inequality and capitalist ideology;
ii. that PR is a "defensive political device" to overcome threats to the status-quo, including opposition to capitalism
3. The Radical Social Role
Presuppositions:
i. that PR contributes to change, within organizations and in society, via public opinion to the management about the organization and internal operations;
ii. that PR contributes to social change by giving information for public debate, by building linkages between social groups, and by pooling resources to solve social problems;
iii. that PR practitioners have the power and influence within organizations to inform decision makers about their social environment
Both the conservative and radical presuppositions are predicated on the premise that org comm can have powerful effects on society. They view PR as an "arsenal" for conflicting social groups in an ideological warfare.
4. The Idealistic Social Role
Presuppositions:
i. this worldview is expressed in codes of conduct, definitions of the practice, keynote addresses and academic writing about the practice;
ii. the underlying premise is that of compromise and dialogue that leads to amicable resolution between opposing social groups;
iii. that there is a diversity of viewpoints that can be reconciled to promote a progressive society;
iv. that PR serves the public interest, forges mutual understanding between organizations and their publics, contributes to informed debate about issues in society, and promotes a dialogue between organizations and their publics;
v. that the society is ruled by a norm of reciprocity that enables PR practice to be symmetrical and idealistic
5. The Neutral Social Role
i. that PR is a neutral or objective field of study and that the emphasis is on motivations, goals and effects of PR activities;
ii. that PR has a social function
The notion that observation and interpretation can be neutral has since been debunked, both are affected by our beliefs and values, which in turn gave rise to criticisms of the observed behaviors and recommendations for more effective behaviors
6. The Critical Social Role
i. that the reality, which includes organizations and society, are socially constructed that can be deconstructed and reconstructed;
ii. that documented research points towards unethical practices, unfavorable consequences, or ineffective styles of PR that diverge from the normative worldview of PR excellence;
iii. that PR is used to collude with big government to limit competition (Olasky, 1987, 1989);
iv. that PR assists in the maintainance of the dominant power structure (Gandy, 1982);
v. that the two-way SPR cannot be applied to the US context unless its culture and political structure is radically transformed (Rakow, 1989)
Thus, the Idealistic standpoint underpins ideas about what constitutes Excellent PR, although it may be rejected by public relations practitioners.
1. The Pragmatic Social Role
Presuppositions:
i. that PR is a useful and "value-added" practice to achieve the client's marketing objectives and commercial interests;
ii. thus, this presupposition will argue against the development of codes of conduct or ethical standards in PR practice;
iii. this view paves the way to practices that brings PR into disrepute or allows client to dictate PR practice;
iv. this worldview perceives society as comprised of "a marketplace of ideas, services and products" and publics as customers to be neutralized in the pursuit of profits;
v. since this social view serves the client's interests, it will not lead to excellent PR practice and make the organization more effective.
2. The Conservative Social Role
Presuppositions:
i. that PR justifies, defends and maintains the status-quo, the privileges of the powers-that-be, heirarchy, inequality and capitalist ideology;
ii. that PR is a "defensive political device" to overcome threats to the status-quo, including opposition to capitalism
3. The Radical Social Role
Presuppositions:
i. that PR contributes to change, within organizations and in society, via public opinion to the management about the organization and internal operations;
ii. that PR contributes to social change by giving information for public debate, by building linkages between social groups, and by pooling resources to solve social problems;
iii. that PR practitioners have the power and influence within organizations to inform decision makers about their social environment
Both the conservative and radical presuppositions are predicated on the premise that org comm can have powerful effects on society. They view PR as an "arsenal" for conflicting social groups in an ideological warfare.
4. The Idealistic Social Role
Presuppositions:
i. this worldview is expressed in codes of conduct, definitions of the practice, keynote addresses and academic writing about the practice;
ii. the underlying premise is that of compromise and dialogue that leads to amicable resolution between opposing social groups;
iii. that there is a diversity of viewpoints that can be reconciled to promote a progressive society;
iv. that PR serves the public interest, forges mutual understanding between organizations and their publics, contributes to informed debate about issues in society, and promotes a dialogue between organizations and their publics;
v. that the society is ruled by a norm of reciprocity that enables PR practice to be symmetrical and idealistic
5. The Neutral Social Role
i. that PR is a neutral or objective field of study and that the emphasis is on motivations, goals and effects of PR activities;
ii. that PR has a social function
The notion that observation and interpretation can be neutral has since been debunked, both are affected by our beliefs and values, which in turn gave rise to criticisms of the observed behaviors and recommendations for more effective behaviors
6. The Critical Social Role
i. that the reality, which includes organizations and society, are socially constructed that can be deconstructed and reconstructed;
ii. that documented research points towards unethical practices, unfavorable consequences, or ineffective styles of PR that diverge from the normative worldview of PR excellence;
iii. that PR is used to collude with big government to limit competition (Olasky, 1987, 1989);
iv. that PR assists in the maintainance of the dominant power structure (Gandy, 1982);
v. that the two-way SPR cannot be applied to the US context unless its culture and political structure is radically transformed (Rakow, 1989)
Thus, the Idealistic standpoint underpins ideas about what constitutes Excellent PR, although it may be rejected by public relations practitioners.
Excellent Public Relations (PR)
In the quest for knowledge and skills that are industry relevant, it is natural for practitioners and the public to view PR as a mere marketing tool, a set of techniques or tactics and, thus, ignore the necessity of a theory of management to underpin PR's marketing function.
The emphasis on techniques is also reinforced by popular books on PR such as Confessions of a PR Man (Wood with Gunther, 1988) by a former executive of Carl Byoir and Associates and Power and Influence by Hill and Knowlton's former CEO (Dilenschneider, 1990).
However, Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management (Grunig, 1992, 55) argued that practitioners cannot achieve excellence "if the schema for public relations in the organization (the component of worldview related to public relations) conceives of public relations as asymmetrical, in a neutral or advocacy role, and solely technical in nature". He further asserted that "excellent public relations is based on the worldview that public relations is symmetrical, idealistic in its social role, and managerial."
The Role of Worldview in PR Excellence
Understanding worldviews is necessary in order to make a distinction between excellent and less excellent public relations.
Worldview is defined as "a set of images and assumptions about the world" (Kearney, 1984, 10). The term 'image' has two meanings - one is the "literal sense of a visual representation in the mind" and the other is "organizing principles that have variously been called schemata, Gestalten, plans, structures, and so on" (1984, 47).
The ability of a worldview (and the theories it generates) to solve important problems is probably its most useful criterion. A worldview is deemed useful if it is able to produce public relations programs that provide the best strategies to resolve conflict in society, resolve conflict at the national and international level, convince organizations to be more socially responsible, or assist organizations to be more effective.
Grunig (1992, 38) concluded that an excellent worldview for public relations is one that is "logical, coherent, unified and orderly - the internal criteria. It should also be effective in solving organizational and human problems ... - the external criterion. Finally, it should be ethical in that it helps organizations build caring - even loving - relationships with other individuals and groups they affect in the society or the world."
Symmetrical vs Asymmetrical Public Relations
The dominant worldview in public relations is the asymmetrical view that public relations is "a way of achieving an organization's objectives without having to change its behavior or compromising" (Grunig, 1992, 39). This dominant paradigm or mind-set is based on "powerful effects model" (that communication or public relations have "powerful effects" on their target audience) which leads organizations away from being effective and does not serve their long-term interests.
In order to be effective in the long-run, organizations should adopt the symmetrical view that public relations involves "compromise and negotiation and not a war for power" (1992, 39).
Four Models of Public Relations
1. Press Agentry
PR strives for publicity in the media in almost any way possible
2. Public Information
PR uses journalists in residence to disseminate objective but only favorable information about the organization
3. Two-way Asymmetrical
The organization uses research to develop messages that are most liketly to persuade publics to behave as the organization wants
4. Two-way Symmetrical
The organization uses research and dialogue to manage conflict, improve understanding, and build relationships with publics
Critique of Asymmetrical Public Relations (APR)
Grunig (1989) argued that asymmetrical PR:
- "steers public relations practitioners towards actions that are unethical, socially irresponsible, and ineffective"
- "practitioners ... presuppose that the organization knows best and that publics benefit from "cooperating" with it
- practitioners with a social consience ... sometimes convince themselves that they are manipulating publics for the sake of those publics (Olasky, 1984)
- that the mutual benefits of asymmetrical public relations is self-deceptive
Characteristics of APR:
1. Internal Orientation
Members of the organization look out from the organization and do not see the organization as outsiders see it ("blinkered view")
2. Closed System
Information flows out from the organization and not into it (one-way communication)
3. Efficiency
Efficiency and control of costs are more important than innovation
4. Elitism
Leaders of the organization know best. They have more knowledge than members of the publics. Wisdom is not the product of a "free marketplace of ideas"
5. Conservatism
Change is undesirable. Outside efforts to change the organization should be resisted; pressure for change should be considered subversive
6. Tradition
Tradition provides an organization with stability and helps it to maintain its culture
7. Central Authority
Power should be concentrated in the hands of a few top managers. Employees have little autonomy. Organizations should be managed as autocracies.
(Grunig, 1989, 32-33)
Presuppositions of Symmetrical PR (SPR):
1. Interdependence
Organizations cannot isolate themselves from their environment. Although organizations have boundaries that separate them from their environment, publics and other organizations in that environment "interpenetrate" the organization.
2. Open System
The organization is open to interpenetrating systems and freely exchanges information with those systems
3. Moving Equilibrium
Organizations as systems strive toward an equilibrium with other systems, an equilibrium state that constantly moves as the environment changes. Systems may attempt to establish equilibrium by controlling other systems; by adapting themselves to other systems; or by making mutual, cooperative adjustments. The symmetrical worldview prefers cooperative and mutual adjustment to control and adaptation.
4. Equity
People should be given equal opportunity and be respected as fellow human beings. Anyone, regardless of education or background may provide valuable input into an organization.
5. Autonomy
People are more innovative, constructive, and self-fulfilled when they have autonomy to influence their own behavior, rather than having it controlled by others. Autonomy maximizes employee employee satisfaction inside the organization and cooperation outside the organization.
6. Innovation
New ideas and flexible thinking rather than tradition and efficiency should be stressed.
7. Decentralization of Management
Management should be collective; managers should coordinate rather than dictate. Decentralization increases autonomy, employee satisfaction, and innovation.
8. Responsibility
People and organizations must be concerned with the consequences of their behaviours on others and attempt to eliminate adverse consequences.
9. Conflict Resolution
Conflict should be resolved through negotiation, communication, and compromise and not through force, manipulation, coercion, or violence.
10. Interest-Group Liberalism
Classical liberalism, which typically champions big government, can be as close-minded as classical conservatism, which typically champions big business. Interest-group liberalism, however, views the political system as a mechanism for open negotiation among interest or issue groups (Grunig, 1989; Lowi, 1979). Interest-group liberalism looks to citizen groups to "champion interests of ordinary people against unresponsive government and corporate structures (Boyte, 1980, 7)
Critique of SPR
- the approach is unrealistic or idealistic
- organizations hire public relations practitioners as advocates to advance their interests and not as altrustic people who succumb to the publics' unreasonable demands
Notes for Contemporary Issues in PR Comm, Diploma in Corp Comm, Olympia College
(Mondays, 6:30-9:30pm)
The emphasis on techniques is also reinforced by popular books on PR such as Confessions of a PR Man (Wood with Gunther, 1988) by a former executive of Carl Byoir and Associates and Power and Influence by Hill and Knowlton's former CEO (Dilenschneider, 1990).
However, Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management (Grunig, 1992, 55) argued that practitioners cannot achieve excellence "if the schema for public relations in the organization (the component of worldview related to public relations) conceives of public relations as asymmetrical, in a neutral or advocacy role, and solely technical in nature". He further asserted that "excellent public relations is based on the worldview that public relations is symmetrical, idealistic in its social role, and managerial."
The Role of Worldview in PR Excellence
Understanding worldviews is necessary in order to make a distinction between excellent and less excellent public relations.
Worldview is defined as "a set of images and assumptions about the world" (Kearney, 1984, 10). The term 'image' has two meanings - one is the "literal sense of a visual representation in the mind" and the other is "organizing principles that have variously been called schemata, Gestalten, plans, structures, and so on" (1984, 47).
The ability of a worldview (and the theories it generates) to solve important problems is probably its most useful criterion. A worldview is deemed useful if it is able to produce public relations programs that provide the best strategies to resolve conflict in society, resolve conflict at the national and international level, convince organizations to be more socially responsible, or assist organizations to be more effective.
Grunig (1992, 38) concluded that an excellent worldview for public relations is one that is "logical, coherent, unified and orderly - the internal criteria. It should also be effective in solving organizational and human problems ... - the external criterion. Finally, it should be ethical in that it helps organizations build caring - even loving - relationships with other individuals and groups they affect in the society or the world."
Symmetrical vs Asymmetrical Public Relations
The dominant worldview in public relations is the asymmetrical view that public relations is "a way of achieving an organization's objectives without having to change its behavior or compromising" (Grunig, 1992, 39). This dominant paradigm or mind-set is based on "powerful effects model" (that communication or public relations have "powerful effects" on their target audience) which leads organizations away from being effective and does not serve their long-term interests.
In order to be effective in the long-run, organizations should adopt the symmetrical view that public relations involves "compromise and negotiation and not a war for power" (1992, 39).
Four Models of Public Relations
1. Press Agentry
PR strives for publicity in the media in almost any way possible
2. Public Information
PR uses journalists in residence to disseminate objective but only favorable information about the organization
3. Two-way Asymmetrical
The organization uses research to develop messages that are most liketly to persuade publics to behave as the organization wants
4. Two-way Symmetrical
The organization uses research and dialogue to manage conflict, improve understanding, and build relationships with publics
Critique of Asymmetrical Public Relations (APR)
Grunig (1989) argued that asymmetrical PR:
- "steers public relations practitioners towards actions that are unethical, socially irresponsible, and ineffective"
- "practitioners ... presuppose that the organization knows best and that publics benefit from "cooperating" with it
- practitioners with a social consience ... sometimes convince themselves that they are manipulating publics for the sake of those publics (Olasky, 1984)
- that the mutual benefits of asymmetrical public relations is self-deceptive
Characteristics of APR:
1. Internal Orientation
Members of the organization look out from the organization and do not see the organization as outsiders see it ("blinkered view")
2. Closed System
Information flows out from the organization and not into it (one-way communication)
3. Efficiency
Efficiency and control of costs are more important than innovation
4. Elitism
Leaders of the organization know best. They have more knowledge than members of the publics. Wisdom is not the product of a "free marketplace of ideas"
5. Conservatism
Change is undesirable. Outside efforts to change the organization should be resisted; pressure for change should be considered subversive
6. Tradition
Tradition provides an organization with stability and helps it to maintain its culture
7. Central Authority
Power should be concentrated in the hands of a few top managers. Employees have little autonomy. Organizations should be managed as autocracies.
(Grunig, 1989, 32-33)
Presuppositions of Symmetrical PR (SPR):
1. Interdependence
Organizations cannot isolate themselves from their environment. Although organizations have boundaries that separate them from their environment, publics and other organizations in that environment "interpenetrate" the organization.
2. Open System
The organization is open to interpenetrating systems and freely exchanges information with those systems
3. Moving Equilibrium
Organizations as systems strive toward an equilibrium with other systems, an equilibrium state that constantly moves as the environment changes. Systems may attempt to establish equilibrium by controlling other systems; by adapting themselves to other systems; or by making mutual, cooperative adjustments. The symmetrical worldview prefers cooperative and mutual adjustment to control and adaptation.
4. Equity
People should be given equal opportunity and be respected as fellow human beings. Anyone, regardless of education or background may provide valuable input into an organization.
5. Autonomy
People are more innovative, constructive, and self-fulfilled when they have autonomy to influence their own behavior, rather than having it controlled by others. Autonomy maximizes employee employee satisfaction inside the organization and cooperation outside the organization.
6. Innovation
New ideas and flexible thinking rather than tradition and efficiency should be stressed.
7. Decentralization of Management
Management should be collective; managers should coordinate rather than dictate. Decentralization increases autonomy, employee satisfaction, and innovation.
8. Responsibility
People and organizations must be concerned with the consequences of their behaviours on others and attempt to eliminate adverse consequences.
9. Conflict Resolution
Conflict should be resolved through negotiation, communication, and compromise and not through force, manipulation, coercion, or violence.
10. Interest-Group Liberalism
Classical liberalism, which typically champions big government, can be as close-minded as classical conservatism, which typically champions big business. Interest-group liberalism, however, views the political system as a mechanism for open negotiation among interest or issue groups (Grunig, 1989; Lowi, 1979). Interest-group liberalism looks to citizen groups to "champion interests of ordinary people against unresponsive government and corporate structures (Boyte, 1980, 7)
Critique of SPR
- the approach is unrealistic or idealistic
- organizations hire public relations practitioners as advocates to advance their interests and not as altrustic people who succumb to the publics' unreasonable demands
Notes for Contemporary Issues in PR Comm, Diploma in Corp Comm, Olympia College
(Mondays, 6:30-9:30pm)
Activity: If I Could Do It Over Again
Think of a recent example that you were involved in a miscommunication and answer the following questions.
Why did the miscommunication occur?
What impact did it have?
If you had a chance to do it over again, what specifically would you do differently?
Baiti Badarudin
Why did the miscommunication occur?
What impact did it have?
If you had a chance to do it over again, what specifically would you do differently?
Baiti Badarudin
Communicating Effectively
Are you aware that:
• The average worker spends 50 percent of his or her time communicating?
• Biz success is 85 percent dependent on effective communication and interpersonal skills?
• Forty-five percent of time spent communicating is listening?
• Writing represents nine percent of communication time?
• One-fourth of all workplace mistakes are the result of poor communication?
• A remarkable 75 percent of communication is nonverbal?
Baiti Badarudin
• The average worker spends 50 percent of his or her time communicating?
• Biz success is 85 percent dependent on effective communication and interpersonal skills?
• Forty-five percent of time spent communicating is listening?
• Writing represents nine percent of communication time?
• One-fourth of all workplace mistakes are the result of poor communication?
• A remarkable 75 percent of communication is nonverbal?
Baiti Badarudin
BCare: Bicara Communicare
‘Bicara’ is the Malay word for speak or talk and ‘Communicare’ is the Latin word which means “to make common”, that is to share the meanings of what you are trying to convey through whatever mode of delivery so that the other person that you are communicating with will understand and respond accordingly.
A lot of misunderstanding, misery and even war occur due to ‘miscommunication’, the inability or failure on both or more parties to agree not only on the meaning of the content communicated but also the way or style in which it is communicated.
A very good example is the consternation of the Syariah courts over the decision of husband to divorce his wife via short messaging system (sms). Makes one wonder too how did he court her in the first place? So much for the touted ‘Asian values’ (“Nilai-nilai murni budaya Timur”). What indeed happened to good breeding or upbringing or even common courtesy and basic decency?
The basic uni-linear communication model comprised of the following:
the sender -> the message -> the channel -> the receiver
with ‘noise’ (in the form of technical or environmental disturbances) affecting the quality of content, thus the meaning, communicated. Of course, this basic model has been modified to include social and cultural contexts.
I personally think that social and cultural contexts are over-rated and there is a universal standard of acceptable conduct in communicating with others. In fact, the ‘oblique’ communication style preferred by some individuals or groups within Malay society and culture is often a clever cover for lack of courage and a cowardly conduit for abusive and toxic communication. Since life is short, and meant to be lived to the fullest, we should learn to communicate with the utmost care for the other person’s feelings, comfort and confidence. So, are you ready to join me on this life journey?
I will focus more on interpersonal communication in my effort to improve communication skills for personal growth and development.
Baiti Badarudin
A lot of misunderstanding, misery and even war occur due to ‘miscommunication’, the inability or failure on both or more parties to agree not only on the meaning of the content communicated but also the way or style in which it is communicated.
A very good example is the consternation of the Syariah courts over the decision of husband to divorce his wife via short messaging system (sms). Makes one wonder too how did he court her in the first place? So much for the touted ‘Asian values’ (“Nilai-nilai murni budaya Timur”). What indeed happened to good breeding or upbringing or even common courtesy and basic decency?
The basic uni-linear communication model comprised of the following:
the sender -> the message -> the channel -> the receiver
with ‘noise’ (in the form of technical or environmental disturbances) affecting the quality of content, thus the meaning, communicated. Of course, this basic model has been modified to include social and cultural contexts.
I personally think that social and cultural contexts are over-rated and there is a universal standard of acceptable conduct in communicating with others. In fact, the ‘oblique’ communication style preferred by some individuals or groups within Malay society and culture is often a clever cover for lack of courage and a cowardly conduit for abusive and toxic communication. Since life is short, and meant to be lived to the fullest, we should learn to communicate with the utmost care for the other person’s feelings, comfort and confidence. So, are you ready to join me on this life journey?
I will focus more on interpersonal communication in my effort to improve communication skills for personal growth and development.
Baiti Badarudin
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